The Super Summary of World History Read online

  Apparently, the marauders did not care to settle in or near the cities they sacked.[18] The invaders appeared, destroyed, and then disappeared. It is possible that natural disasters contributed to the fall of the ancient Bronze Age cities, but the extension and heightening of the city walls indicates the disasters were manmade. More research may turn up better evidence, but for now, this inexplicable collapse of the high Bronze Age civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean remains a tantalizing enigma. Some authors hold the “invasion” was actually a great migration from the Black Sea and Caspian Sea area, rather than an invasion coming from the west to the east.[19]

  Here we should note the importance of great migrations of peoples. The mystifying Bronze Age collapse could be the result of mass migrations from central Europe, most of which were Indo-European stock carrying iron weapons. We cannot know for certain. About 1300 BC, Iron Age peoples of the “Urnfield Culture”[20] were expanding out of their original territory in central Europe, leading some scholars to think this migration resulted in the Mediterranean problems. Dates can be most uncertain in ancient history. Other great migrations taking place throughout history influenced civilization in remarkable ways. In fact, there is an ongoing debate about which has more historical importance, the rise of large cities and empires, or the mass migrations of peoples. The cities gave us culture, agriculture, social organization, and specialization. Mass migrations, such as the Franks and Goths moving into Europe and toppling the Western Roman Empire, overthrew entire civilizations, changed social structures across entire regions, and often represent turning points in history. These mass migrations of entire populations from one area to another, usually for reasons unknown, are so numerous they are hard to list. Here are just a few: Asiatic peoples from the area of Mongolia pushing the Germanic people into Europe from about 200 to 1000 AD (sometimes called the Age of Great Migrations), the Sarmatians and Scythians marching into the Black Sea area after 2000 BC and fighting everyone in sight, the movements of Dorian peoples into Greece about 1100 BC pushing out the Mycenaeans, the Bantus moving from Central Africa to the eastern and southern areas of Africa after 2000 BC, and the Vikings moving out of Scandinavia for raids and settlement from 800 to 1100 AD. Such migrations are not elements of the ancient past. Movements such as the Europeans across North America in the 1700’s, or the movements of Latin Americans to North America today (2010) are examples of massive and disruptive movements changing the course of history.

  Harappan Civilizations—Indus Valley

  3300 to 1700 BC

  In the Indus Valley about 3300 BC, a magnificent Bronze Age farming civilization arose that we call Harappan for the city of Harappa. Within the Indus Valley there were over 70 cities, but two stand out: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The Harappans laid out their cities in perfect north-south grids, with fired brick buildings, brick gutters, excellent drainage, and access to water in every house. Hygiene was a major concern of the inhabitants. Each house had a room set aside for bathing, complete with a drainage system to carry the water away. The society developed exacting weights and measures for common use. These may account for the expert grid layout of the cities, and the sophisticated sanitation systems. What makes both these cities even more fascinating is the lack of monumental structures. There were no large structures or extra large houses, plus large temple complexes and ceremonial centers are missing. All the houses were close to the same size, and all their baked mud bricks were exactly the same size. The size was, in centimeters, 17.5 x 13 x 30. How weird is that? Some of these facts, like no large houses, point to an egalitarian society.

  Figure 6 Harappan Civilization

  Thirty years ago archeologist thought the cities in the Indus River plain were constructed without walls; however, recent work shows the cities did have walls—thick double walls complete with ramparts and watchtowers. Inside the two walls was an imposing citadel to further increase protection.[21] Normally, protection like this means the people are frightened, but we have no idea why they needed such expensive and extensive protection. Our problem with the Indus civilizations is a lack of written records. Archeologists found cylinder seals in abundance, and recorded about four hundred symbols from the seals; thus, it is thought the society was literate, but no books or written records can be located. The lack of records severely hampers the hunt for facts about this civilization. The mere fact that the houses are the same size, wholly different from other ancient cultures, leaves us wondering what kind of society existed in the Bronze Age Indus Valley.

  The Indus Valley pre-Aryan peoples created excellent pottery, flint blades, and copper wares. This manufacture was widely used in trade, and it found its way westward to the Fertile Crescent, and eastward to the Indian subcontinent. Indus Valley civilizations began to decline about 1800 BC. Why is unclear. Aryan invaders carrying iron weapons enter the area in 1700 BC, but it seems the civilization was already on a downward spiral. After the Aryan arrival, Harappan civilization soon vanishes completely.

  The Aryans and Iron Age Civilizations In India

  1700 to 500 BC

  The Aryans came to the Indus Valley sweeping all before them; however, they were not the cultural equal of the preceding Harappan civilization. As a result, India and the Indus Valley fell into a dark age from which we can gather very little information. The Aryan language forms a cluster of languages that include German, English, and Sanskrit. These nomadic Aryan people probably arrived from Turkistan, and their arrival completely changed the language and culture of India, ushering in the Vedic period that followed the ancient Harappan. The Aryans brought an Iron Age culture into the valley, but it lacked a written language—at least initially. This Aryan culture dominated India through its religious underpinnings, the Upanishads, eventually developing into the complex religious and social caste system still seen today. What we do have from this era are the literary epics of Hinduism (the Vedas): Ramayana and Mahabharata. Hinduism was formed from early Aryan beliefs and prospered in India. It prevailed over Buddhism which spread from India to the rest of Asia and became a dominant force in these areas.[22] The Mahabharata is a key myth in Indian culture. In this story of an epic heroic war, the Krishna, its hero, finally manages to defeat his enemies in an enormous final battle (what else?). From this myth materializes many stories that dictate how one should live his life and perform his duties to society. The story was composed between 400 BC and 400 AD (current theory), and it is here the ancient gods of pre-history are established forever in India’s story. The myth blurs itself into history, and it is as real in India today as it was in ancient times. Even in 2010, India’s people dance to the gods of pre-history and their society continues as prescribed so many thousands of years ago in the ancient texts. In the countryside, away from the large cities, the rural people live the same as their ancient ancestors. The houses are the same, they tell the same stories, and live the same religion. The Aryan impact on India has been enduring.

  Figure 7 Maurya Empire

  The Maurya dynasty united India in 321 BC. This was the first time the subcontinent enjoyed one ruler, as the Aryan clans had practiced constant warfare since their arrival. Following the fall of the Maurya dynasty, the Gupta dynasty unified the northern areas of India in the fifth century, bringing about what most scholars believe was a golden age. This dynasty was ruined when the Huns arrived in the fourth century. There was a resurgence of the northern dynasties in the seventh century, and this allowed a flowering of Indian culture. The Mongols were to arrive again in AD 1526 and unite the subcontinent under an Islamic dynasty; however, Hinduism would survive even under Islamic rule in India proper. The area of modern day Pakistan converted to Islam during the Mongol period, and this division still troubles the subcontinent, and the world, today.

  Greece and Rome

  Greece and then Rome dominated European, Mediterranean, and Near East history from 1200 BC to AD 1453. Greece, a mountainous area in the northeastern Mediterranean, was comprised of city-states, with each small ar
ea being self-governing and each adopting vastly different ways of governance. Rome was a city that grew to govern the entire Mediterranean area, Western Europe (Gaul, Spain, Portugal, parts of Germany and England), Turkey, North Africa, Egypt, and some of Mesopotamia. If one counts the Eastern Roman Empire, Rome lasted from 753 BC to AD 1453 when the capitol of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, fell to the Turks. The fall of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, about AD 455 and 1453 respectively, are among the most significant events in world history.

  The Greeks

  800 BC to 338 BC

  We will start with the amazing Greeks. Of all the cities in ancient Greece, Athens is the best known. The main Greek city-states were up and running by 800 BC. From about 750 BC, when Homer wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, to 404 BC, when the Peloponnesian War between Sparta and Athens ended, Greek civilization exploded with grandeur. The Greeks, who began with almost nothing, perfected Art, poetry, literature, political values, science, philosophy, warfare, and other areas of Western culture. Greek sculpture is copied even today; modern philosophers still argue with Socrates, Aristotle, and Plato; Herodotus and Thucydides founded the study of history; Homer’s writings about the history of the Trojan War founded epic poetry; the Greek heavily armored civilian soldiers (hoplites) founded the military principles with which Alexander the Great would conquer the East. Athens laid the foundations of democracy, which were eventually passed down to Europe and America. Greece was the foundation for the Western world we know today. And even today, in philosophy, sculpture, history, political thought, poetry, and literature the Greeks remain unsurpassed.

  Individual Greater than the State

  Most of these new ideas came from Athens. Athens was a democracy where, for much of its history, every male citizen could vote on critical issues of the day in a public assembly. This reflected a new idea, an idea foreign to rulers in the East. The idea, which spread to the Western world from Greece, was the individual is greater than the state. From the point of view of Western democracy this was the greatest political idea ever discovered. It is still the defining factor in governments, both East and West.

  A much older idea ruled the East, where the great rulers of Babylonia, Persia, Egypt, and many others always held on to the opposite: the state is greater than the individual. In Athens, a person could oppose the city (read “the government”) and demand satisfaction from the group of gathered Athenian citizens rather than give in to an order from a ruler. Greek citizens considered themselves free men, and they participated in the governance of their cities. One man’s word was not the law. In the East, the old idea of rule by one person maintained its sway. An oriental king could have anyone, one man or an entire army, put to death on his word alone.

  If we stop to think about our world in 2010, we see the concept of one person (or perhaps a small group) autocratic rule is still paramount in China, Southeast Asia, North Korea, Russia, the Middle East, Africa, and many places in South and Central America including Cuba. The idea that the individual is more important than the state took hold in England, France (to some extent), Germany (finally), Italy, Greece, Austria, Spain (well, kind of . . . at least since Franco died), some areas of the Balkans, some parts of Eastern Europe (Poland, Latvia, etc), India, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. The reader will note that the English colonies are the primary nations that practice democracy and believe the individual is more important than the collective (United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and England itself). This idea divides the world even now.

  Of Gods and Governments

  The linkup of god and government is a powerful combination for controlling individuals.[23] We do not know when this amalgamation first occurred; however, once the linkup was secure, making god and the state one, any decision became impossible to challenge. Anyone opposing the government was both a traitor and a heretic. This is the pattern for most of history. The oriental dictators of Egypt, Babylonia, Persia, and so many others, coupled religion and leadership of the state; thus, the ruler was anointed by the gods, guided by the gods, and in touch with the gods so his decisions were also anointed by the gods. The priesthood confirmed, on behalf of the ruler, that god (or the gods) agreed, and the common person lacked any power to challenge this powerful duet.[24]

  The Greeks broke this pattern. Greek government leaders were not considered gods, or god’s appointees, so their decisions could be openly questioned. It took more than mere opposition to the government to make a person a traitor or a heretic. A person could question the wisdom of the leaders without fearing reprisals; well . . . most of the time . . . err . . . maybe every now and then . . . with carefully chosen words. The west eventually adopted this viewpoint, separating church and state. The kings of the Orient disagreed then, and modern despots disagree now. Hitler, Stalin, Mao, fascism, and communism all agree governments are not ordained by god (in fact, they think there is no god); and they agree the individual is nothing, as only the state gives an individual meaning. Thus, the government becomes god, as Hobbes opined in The Leviathan, published in AD 1651. When the government is separate from god but does recognize god’s existence, its actions can be limited by god’s pronouncements (sometimes called natural law); however, if the government does not believe in or acknowledge god, then there are no limits, moral or otherwise, on government action. Such governments are the most dangerous of all.[25] Greek city-states were having problems with governance, until an outside force came to oppress them.

  The Persians Invade Greece

  From at least 750 BC to about 490 BC, Greece was a disunited land, as the city-states spent a bunch of time warring with one another. In fact, Greece enjoyed diversity through three separate peoples: the Mycenaeans (also called Arcadians), Ionians, and Dorians. (And you thought diversity was a good thing.)The Dorians, arriving last, about 800 BC, threw the Greek peninsula into turmoil, on top of creating a hundred year dark age;. It seems the only uniting elements were a common language and culture. The Greeks habitually divided the world into two parts, those who spoke Greek and the barbarians who did not. The Greeks also established colonies—many colonies, all around the Aegean Sea. Later they expanded to the Black Sea, Italy, Sicily, and Lebanon and beyond. Still, Greece was an area of small kingdoms and internecine warfare, where unity was unattainable (so much for the benefits of “diversity”).

  Figure 8 Battle of Marathon

  Persia’s expansion took them to Anatolia in Western Turkey, and contact with Ionian Greek colonies. These Greeks were a tough bunch to govern, and a revolt against Persia was soon underway (the Ionian Revolt—there’s a creative name). The Ionian Greeks requested help, and Athens sent aid to their fellow Greeks. Persia crushed the revolt, but mighty King Darius, ruler of Persia, fumed about diminutive Athens giving aid to the uprising. Darius decided on a strong raid to teach Athens a lesson. The result: a most important battle, and the start of many unanticipated events.

  The great battle took place at Marathon on the eastern shores of Greece in 490 BC. The Persians chose the place of battle, but they chose poorly. Sailing from Persia, the army headed west and decided to land at a beach near the town of Marathon, which was a relatively confined area; soon, an Athenian hoplite army opposed them. The Persians were accustomed to battling their foes on the open plains of the Middle East where swiftly moving cavalry could decide battles; but now, in this confined battlefield, cavalry maneuver was not possible. In addition, a Greek force of heavily armored men faced them with huge sturdy shields arranged like a wall in front of them, and this formation could repel Persian arrows that were a significant part of Persian tactics. The type of battle that developed was one in which the strengths of the Persians (maneuver and speed) were of little use. Instead, the strengths of the Greeks, the use of heavy infantry in defense and attack, were favored. The Greeks funneled the Persian attack into a narrow field and then quickly closed in on their flanks. After the Persians broke, the Greeks pursued the fleein
g men, slaughtering many before they could regain their ships. It was a considerable victory by a very small force over a much larger one. After the victory, a runner named Pheidippides (these Greek names are tough!) ran from Marathon to Athens and declared, as he dropped dead from exhaustion, “Athens is victorious.” We still celebrate this run today in the Marathon—only the runners do not drop dead at the end (even though they may feel like it). This victory was significant in many ways, but most importantly, it saved the idea of democracy from extinction. Free men defeated the Persian army seeking to enslave them and crush their beliefs.[26]

  What the Greeks could not know was the affair was beginning, not ending. Another king of Persia waited in the wings, with plans to overturn Greek miscalculations. Xerxes, son of Darius, eventually assembled an army and designed a powerful invasion to subjugate the Greeks. It turns out that angering people such as the Persians, possessing huge armies and vast resources, is a bad idea.

  In 480 BC, Xerxes marched against the Greeks. This time the Persian king assembled a huge army, so vast the chroniclers of the day said it was immeasurable.[27] With such a large army, a sea invasion was out of the question. The Persians crossed the Hellespont using a road constructed over a fantastic pontoon boat bridge, an engineering feat for all time, afterward marching around the Aegean Sea toward Athens alerting the Greeks that all of Asia was coming their way.

  Figure 9 Persian Wars—Xerxes Attacks

  The Greeks decided to unite against this invader from the east.[28] To impede the Persian’s progress, the Greeks sent a small force north to the narrow pass at Thermopylae (hell’s gate—thermo meaning hot, and pylae meaning gate) because this area was very tight, with the sea to one side and sharply ascending mountain cliffs to the other, and a small warrior group could buy their fellow Greeks time.